Nationalism in the 21st Century: Definitions, Drivers, and Global Trends

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An examination of modern nationalism—its core principles, historical continuities, and the ways it shapes politics, identity, and global power structures today.

Introduction

Nationalism, long a force in shaping nation-states and international conflict, has reemerged as a defining factor in global politics. From populist movements in the West to ethnic nationalism in South Asia and state-led nationalism in China and Russia, the term encompasses a broad and evolving set of ideas. This article provides a structured overview of contemporary nationalism, tracing its historical roots, defining its modern manifestations, and exploring the geopolitical implications of its resurgence.

Defining Contemporary Nationalism

Nationalism is commonly defined as an ideological commitment to the sovereignty, distinctiveness, and primacy of a particular nation—often accompanied by the belief that this nation should govern itself without external interference. Benedict Anderson famously described nations as “imagined communities,” socially constructed entities that bind people together through shared language, history, or culture (Anderson, 1983).

Contemporary nationalism often blends this classical definition with newer political themes: anti-globalism, border control, identity politics, and economic protectionism. The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines nationalism as “an ideology based on the premise that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual or group interests” (Encyclopaedia Britannica).

While nationalism can foster unity and cultural preservation, it is also associated with exclusion, authoritarianism, and conflict.

Historical Roots and Continuities

19th and 20th Century Nationalism

Modern nationalism emerged during the 19th century with the rise of European nation-states and anti-colonial movements. It fueled both unification—such as in Germany and Italy—and liberation, as in the Indian and Vietnamese independence struggles. After World War II, nationalism played a dual role: strengthening post-colonial identity while also giving rise to ethno-nationalist conflicts (Cambridge History of Nationalism, 2021).

The Post-Cold War Dip

Following the Cold War, liberal internationalism appeared to eclipse nationalism. The 1990s were marked by optimism about globalization, economic integration, and cosmopolitan identity. However, the violent dissolution of Yugoslavia and the Rwandan genocide reminded observers that nationalism had not vanished—it had adapted.

Key Drivers of Contemporary Nationalism

  1. Backlash Against Globalization
    Economic dislocation, outsourcing, and the perceived erosion of national sovereignty have driven nationalist sentiment, particularly in Western democracies. Movements like Brexit and Donald Trump’s “America First” are emblematic of this backlash (Foreign Affairs, 2017).
  2. Migration and Cultural Anxiety
    Increased migration flows have triggered debates about identity, integration, and cultural change. Right-wing nationalist parties in Europe often campaign on anti-immigration platforms that conflate national security with cultural homogeneity (Pew Research Center, 2019).
  3. Technological Polarization
    Social media has facilitated the spread of nationalist narratives, offering platforms for identity politics and disinformation. Algorithms often reward emotive and divisive content, amplifying in-group vs. out-group dynamics (Brookings, 2020).
  4. State-Sponsored Nationalism
    Authoritarian regimes have increasingly deployed nationalism as a strategic tool. China’s “national rejuvenation,” Russia’s revanchist rhetoric on Ukraine, and India’s Hindu-nationalist politics under the BJP represent state-led projects of national consolidation (MERICS, 2022; Carnegie Endowment, 2021).

Typologies and Expressions

Contemporary nationalism is not monolithic. It varies by context:

  • Civic Nationalism emphasizes shared institutions, law, and political values (e.g., Canada, post-war Germany).
  • Ethnic Nationalism stresses ancestry, language, and culture (e.g., Hungary, India).
  • Economic Nationalism advocates for domestic control over markets and protectionist policies (e.g., United States under Trump).
  • Religious Nationalism merges theological identity with national allegiance (e.g., Zionism, Hindutva, political Islam).

These strands often overlap, blurring lines between policy, ideology, and social mobilization.

Contemporary Case Studies

United States: Populist Nationalism

The Trump presidency (2016–2020) marked a high point in American nationalist discourse. Campaign slogans like “Build the Wall” and policies such as trade tariffs and the withdrawal from international agreements reflected a clear nationalist pivot (Council on Foreign Relations, 2020).

India: Hindu Nationalism

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) under Narendra Modi has promoted a vision of India rooted in Hindu cultural values, often marginalizing religious minorities. This has led to domestic tensions and accusations of democratic backsliding (Freedom House, 2024).

Russia: Imperial Nationalism

Vladimir Putin’s narrative of a “Greater Russia” and his justification of the Ukraine invasion rest on a form of ethno-historical nationalism—claiming kinship and civilizational unity between Russians and Ukrainians (Atlantic Council, 2022).

China: Assertive State Nationalism

Under Xi Jinping, the Chinese Communist Party has fostered nationalism through historical grievances, education campaigns, and territorial claims in Taiwan and the South China Sea. This nationalism is tightly linked to loyalty to the party-state (MERICS, 2022).

Critiques and Risks

While nationalism can foster cohesion, it is also associated with:

  • Authoritarianism: Nationalist leaders often centralize power under the guise of national interest (The Economist, 2020).
  • Exclusion and Violence: Nationalism has been a driver of ethnic cleansing and political repression (United Nations, 2023).
  • Undermining Multilateralism: Global coordination on issues like climate change, trade, and migration becomes harder under nationalist regimes (Chatham House, 2021).

Conclusion

Contemporary nationalism is multifaceted, adaptive, and increasingly influential. Whether driven by insecurity, resentment, or genuine cultural pride, nationalist movements shape the domestic and international behavior of states across the ideological spectrum.

Understanding its different expressions—from populist and religious to authoritarian and civic—is critical to grasping the future of global politics. As liberal internationalism confronts rising identity-based politics, nationalism remains a powerful and ambivalent force in the 21st century.

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